PhD Thesis Formatting Guide 2026: US, UK, Canada & Australia

Doctoral thesis formatting in the English-speaking world combines citation standards (APA, MLA, Chicago or IEEE, depending on discipline) with university-specific requirements. This guide compares current guidance and links to official examples from universities in the US, UK, Canada and Australia.

There is no single national thesis formatting standard in any of these countries. Universities revise their guidance on their own schedules, and requirements can also vary by faculty or department. Treat the examples below as a comparison, then verify every rule in the handbook that applies on your submission date.

Quick Formatting Checklist (Before You Submit)

Common conventions (not universal requirements):

• Font: a readable 10 to 12 pt typeface is common, but the permitted fonts and minimum size vary.
• Line spacing: single, 1.5 and double spacing are all used by major universities.
• Page numbers: many institutions use Roman numerals for front matter and Arabic numerals for the body, but some require a different sequence.
• Abstract: limits vary widely. UCL sets 300 words, MIT generally allows 500, and Harvard publishes no maximum in its formatting guidance.
• Citations: use the style your discipline requires (APA, MLA, Chicago or IEEE) and apply it consistently, references included.

Set by your university (verify in your own handbook):

• Margins and page size: permitted dimensions and any binding allowance are institution-specific.
• Length: there is no reliable country-wide page or word-count range. Limits can differ by degree, faculty and discipline within the same university.
• Title page, declarations and front-matter order: use the current graduate school or faculty template rather than a generic model.

The rest of this guide compares these points by country and discipline, with direct links to representative official university guidance.

Doctoral Thesis: Status by Country in 2026

The doctorate is a research degree in all four countries covered here, but names, examination processes, permitted thesis formats and submission rules vary. Even within one institution, a faculty or program may publish additional requirements.

Do not infer one country's rules from another university's example. The official pages linked below illustrate the range; they do not create a national standard.

Citation Standards by Discipline

The required citation standard can depend on discipline, institution, programme and legal jurisdiction. This section identifies current editions and common use cases; your programme's written guidance remains binding.

APA 7 (Social sciences, psychology, education, nursing)

Edition currently in use: APA 7th edition, published October 2019.
Organism: American Psychological Association.
Official source: https://apastyle.apa.org

APA uses author-date in-text citations (Smith, 2024) with full references in an alphabetical reference list. Compared with APA 6, APA 7 changes DOI and URL presentation, student title-page guidance, author thresholds and inclusive-language recommendations.

When to use: psychology, sociology, education, nursing, social work, communication, business (some universities), engineering (some programs).

For full details on APA, see our academic style guides reference.

MLA 9 (Literature, languages, humanities)

Edition currently in use: MLA 9th edition, published April 2021.
Organism: Modern Language Association of America.
Official source: https://www.mla.org/MLA-Style

MLA uses author-page in-text citations (Smith 124) with full references in a "Works Cited" section. Key changes from MLA 8: practical appendices, more flexibility on annotations, expanded guidance for digital sources.

When to use: literature, languages, comparative literature, cultural studies, religious studies (some programs).

Chicago 18 (History, business, fine arts)

Edition currently in use: Chicago Manual of Style 18th edition, published in 2024.
Organism: University of Chicago Press.
Official source: https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org

Chicago has two systems:

• Notes-Bibliography (NB): footnotes or endnotes plus bibliography. Used in humanities (history, art, theology).
• Author-Date (AD): in-text author-date citations plus reference list. Used in sciences and social sciences.

When to use: history, business, fine arts, music, theology, anthropology (some programs).

Turabian (Student-focused companion to Chicago)

Edition currently in use: 9th edition, published April 2018. The University of Chicago Press lists the 10th edition for publication in November 2026.
Organism: University of Chicago Press.

Turabian adapts Chicago-style research and citation guidance for student papers, theses and dissertations. If a program names Turabian, use the edition it specifies; do not silently substitute Chicago 18 while Turabian 9 remains the published edition.

IEEE (Engineering, computer science, electronics)

Edition currently in use: IEEE Reference Guide V 11.29.2023, as currently linked by the IEEE Author Center.
Organism: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Official source: https://journals.ieeeauthorcenter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/IEEE_Reference_Guide.pdf

IEEE uses numerical citations in square brackets [1], [2] in the text, with a numbered reference list in order of appearance. Author initials precede surnames in references (P. Smith, not Smith, P.).

When to use: electrical engineering, computer science, electronics, telecommunications, related technical fields.

AMA 11 (US medicine)

Edition currently in use: 11th edition, published February 2020.
Organism: American Medical Association.
Official source: https://www.amamanualofstyle.com

AMA uses superscript numerical citations in the text and a numbered reference list. Similar to Vancouver style but with US-specific conventions.

When to use: US medicine, public health, biomedical research.

Vancouver (International medicine)

Edition currently in use: ICMJE Recommendations (updated January 2026), updated annually.
Organism: International Committee of Medical Journal Editors.
Official source: https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/

The ICMJE Recommendations provide widely used guidance for medical-journal manuscripts and point authors to the National Library of Medicine's citation formats. Individual journals still publish their own author instructions, which may differ in punctuation and presentation.

When to use: when required by a medical, biomedical, dental or pharmacy programme or publication.

Bluebook (US Law)

Edition currently in use: 22nd edition, published 2025.
Organism: Harvard Law Review Association.
Official source: https://www.legalbluebook.com

Bluebook is widely required in US law schools, journals and legal practice. It provides detailed formats for cases, statutes, regulations and secondary sources.

When to use: US law school theses, law review articles, judicial opinions.

OSCOLA (UK Law)

Edition currently in use: 5th edition, published 25 March 2026.
Organism: Oxford University Faculty of Law.
Official source: https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/oscola

OSCOLA is widely used for UK legal writing. It uses footnotes rather than an author-date system and defines formats for case law, legislation and secondary sources.

When to use: UK law theses, common law jurisdictions.

For all other standards (Harvard, ASA, CSE, ACS, McGill Guide for Canadian law, etc.), see our complete academic style guides reference.

University-Specific Requirements (Layout, Submission)

Each university publishes its own thesis formatting guidance and updates it on its own schedule. These resources cover:

• Page size and margins
• Permitted fonts, minimum size and line spacing
• Title-page format and required front matter
• Numbering conventions
• Submission format (PDF or PDF/A, depending on the institution)
• Maximum word count and what the count includes
• Copyright statement and embargo options

Where to find your university's guide

Universities often publish thesis rules through a Graduate School, Doctoral School, Faculty of Graduate Studies or research office. Start from the institution's official site and confirm that the page applies to your degree and submission date.

Representative official university guidance:

• Harvard: Dissertation Formatting Guidance
• MIT: Specifications for Thesis Preparation
• Stanford: Dissertation and Thesis Submission Checklist
• UC Berkeley: Dissertation Writing and Filing
• Oxford: Research Examinations
• Cambridge: Submitting Your Thesis for Examination
• University College London (UCL): Thesis Preparation, Submission and Publishing
• University of Toronto: School of Graduate Studies Formatting Requirements
• University of British Columbia: Dissertation and Thesis Formatting Requirements
• University of Sydney: Preparing Your Thesis

Always check the current page. Use the requirements in force at the time of submission, not a saved guide from when you started your PhD.

Common Structural Conventions

The following elements are common examples, not a universal template. Their presence, names and order depend on the institution, discipline and thesis format.

Common front-matter elements

1. Title page: use the exact institutional template; the required identity, degree and submission fields vary
2. Declaration or authorship statement: required by some institutions, with institution-specific wording and signature rules
3. Abstract: length set by the institution; for example, UCL sets 300 words, MIT generally allows 500 and Harvard publishes no maximum in its formatting guidance
4. Acknowledgments: optional, thanking supervisors, funders, collaborators, family
5. Table of contents: hierarchical, auto-generated from headings
6. List of figures: numbered list with page references
7. List of tables: numbered list with page references
8. List of abbreviations: optional but recommended for technical fields

Common body structures

An empirical monograph may adapt an IMRaD-style sequence:

1. Chapter 1 - Introduction: research question, context, contribution, thesis overview
2. Chapter 2 - Literature Review: state of the art, gaps, theoretical framework
3. Chapter 3 - Methodology: design, data collection, analysis methods, ethical considerations
4. Chapters 4-N - Results: empirical findings (often multiple chapters)
5. Chapter N+1 - Discussion: interpretation, comparison to literature, implications
6. Chapter N+2 - Conclusion: summary, contribution, limitations, future work

Humanities, law, arts and practice-based theses often use a different chapter logic. Some universities also allow a thesis by publication, with institution-specific rules for co-authorship, connecting material and the status of included papers.

Common back-matter elements

1. References: bibliography in your discipline's citation style
2. Appendices: supplementary material (questionnaires, data tables, code listings)
3. Glossary: optional, recommended for technical fields

Submission Format: Follow Your University's PDF Requirements

Electronic submission commonly uses PDF, but archival requirements vary. MIT currently asks departments for a PDF/A-1 file, while Stanford, UC Berkeley, Oxford, the University of Toronto and the University of Sydney specify PDF without making PDF/A a general requirement. Do not convert to PDF/A unless your graduate school or department asks for it.

Before submission, verify:

• The accepted PDF or PDF/A version
• Embedded fonts and working links
• Any accessibility or tagging requirement
• Page size, margins and maximum file size
• Whether encryption or password protection is prohibited
• How supplemental files must be uploaded

If PDF/A is required, confirm the exact profile rather than choosing one by default:

• PDF/A-1 is the most restrictive and has broad compatibility.
• PDF/A-2 supports features such as transparency and JPEG 2000.
• PDF/A-3 can contain embedded files.

Word, LibreOffice and LaTeX workflows can produce PDF/A, but the available profile and validation steps depend on the tool. Inspect the final file against your institution's current instructions.

Open Access and Repository Submission

Repository coverage and access conditions vary. Your university's repository and deposit agreement are the binding sources for your thesis.

United States

• ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global is a major commercial dissertation database and a Library of Congress repository partner. Participation and submission requirements are set by each institution or program.

United Kingdom

• EThOS (British Library) is a national discovery service for UK doctoral theses. It harvests metadata from participating university repositories and links to full text where available; not every record provides a downloadable thesis.
• University repository coverage and access conditions vary, so verify the awarding institution's record and policy.

Canada

• Theses Canada is a collaborative Library and Archives Canada program that acquires theses from participating universities. Not every Canadian university participates, and students submit through their university rather than directly to the program.

Australia

• Trove (National Library of Australia) indexes theses and other Australian research materials.

Word Count and Length Guidelines

There is no defensible country-wide maximum. Cambridge alone publishes different limits by degree and discipline, including 60,000, 65,000 and 80,000 words, while mathematics has no standard word limit. Other universities and faculties use their own figures.

The definition of the count also varies. References, footnotes, appendices, tables and published-paper material may be included or excluded differently. Use the current rule for your exact degree and obtain written approval before exceeding it.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Five mistakes that delay submission or cause re-formatting.

Mixing citation styles within the thesis

Use the citation style required by your program and apply it consistently. If the handbook permits more than one style, agree on one with your supervisor before building the bibliography.

Assuming every university requires the same PDF format

Some institutions require PDF/A-1, while others explicitly request a standard PDF. Follow the current graduate school and department instructions, embed fonts, remove encryption and run any required accessibility or format checks before upload.

Not following the university's title page template exactly

Where the institution provides a title-page template, follow its wording, order and capitalization. A local formatting review may require corrections when the submitted page differs from that template.

Ignoring word count limits

Going over the applicable word-count limit may require prior permission or later cuts. Track the count using your institution's inclusion and exclusion rules rather than a generic percentage target.

Late embargo or copyright decisions

Repository licences, embargoes and third-party copyright clearances may need approval before deposit. Check the applicable deadlines with your graduate school and repository rather than assuming a standard lead time.

Pre-Submission Checklist

• University-specific formatting guidelines downloaded and read in full
• Discipline-appropriate citation style chosen (APA, MLA, Chicago, IEEE, AMA, etc.)
• Title page matches the university template exactly
• Declaration of authorship signed (or ready to sign)
• Abstract within the institution's stated word limit
• Front matter complete (TOC, list of figures, list of tables, abbreviations if needed)
• Chapter numbering consistent (Roman or Arabic per university convention)
• Page numbers correct (Roman for front matter, Arabic for body)
• Citations consistent in chosen style throughout
• Bibliography matches in-text citations one-to-one (no orphaned references)
• All figures and tables captioned and referenced in text
• Word count within university limit
• Embargo decision made (if applicable)
• Third-party copyright clearances obtained (for republished figures/tables)
• Exported in the PDF or PDF/A format required by your university
• Final proofreading complete (multiple passes recommended)
• Supervisor approval for submission obtained
• Defense date scheduled with examiners

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FAQ

What's the best citation standard for my PhD thesis?
There is no universal best style. APA 7, MLA 9, Chicago 18, IEEE, Vancouver, AMA, Bluebook 22 and OSCOLA 5 are associated with different disciplines and jurisdictions, but the written programme or publication requirement decides. For current editions and use cases, see our academic style guides reference.

Is APA 7 different from APA 6?
Yes. APA 7 changed DOI and URL presentation, author thresholds, student title-page guidance, inclusive language and coverage of digital and audiovisual sources. Use the edition assigned by the programme or publication.

Do I have to submit my thesis in PDF/A?
Not necessarily. MIT currently requests PDF/A-1, but Stanford, UC Berkeley, Oxford, the University of Toronto and the University of Sydney publish requirements for PDF without a general PDF/A mandate. Check both your graduate school and department instructions, then use the exact format and validation process they specify.

Can I write my PhD thesis in Word?
Yes, if your institution accepts the resulting file and you can meet its layout and accessibility requirements. Use heading styles, automatic cross-references and a reference manager, and keep versioned backups. Long-document reliability depends on document structure and workflow, not a universal page threshold.

Should I use LaTeX for my thesis?
LaTeX is widely used in mathematics and some technical fields, but it is not universally required. It is useful for equations, cross-references and bibliography automation. Choose it when your program provides a supported template or you already know the workflow; otherwise use an accepted tool that reliably produces the required final file.

How long should my abstract be?
Use the exact institutional limit. Current examples differ materially: UCL sets 300 words, MIT generally allows 500 and Harvard's formatting guidance publishes no maximum. The abstract normally states the research question, approach, principal findings and contribution, but any required structure also comes from the local guidance.

Can I have my supervisor on my examination committee?
This varies by country and university. In the US, your supervisor is typically chair or member of your dissertation committee. In the UK, your supervisor is usually NOT on the examination panel (the viva is conducted by external examiners). In Australia and Canada, supervisor presence varies by institution. Check your university's specific policy.

What is "thesis by publication" and is it allowed?
Some universities allow PhD theses structured as a series of published or publishable journal articles, with a shared introduction and conclusion. This format is common in STEM and increasingly in social sciences. Allowed in many Australian, UK, and European universities. Less common in US humanities. Check your graduate school's policy and discuss with your supervisor before adopting this format.

Do I need to publish before submitting my thesis?
There is no general cross-country requirement to publish before submission. Some programs or thesis-by-publication routes impose publication or acceptance conditions; others do not. Check the degree regulations and discuss publication strategy separately with your supervisor.

Will my PhD thesis be publicly accessible after submission?
Public availability depends on your university's repository licence, any participating discovery service and an approved embargo. ProQuest, EThOS, Trove and Theses Canada do not create one universal access rule. Check the deposit agreement for the permitted embargo grounds, duration and full-text availability.